温习笔记
【本章要害】
1. the functions of language 言语的功用
2. the defining features of language 言语的差异性特征
3. the origin of language 言语的来历
4. the acquisition of language 言语的习得
【本章考点】
言语的功用，言语的来历，言语的差异性特征及言语习得等。
【本章内容索引】
ⅰ. the languages of the world
ⅱ. the functions of language
1. phatic
2. directive
3. informative
4. interrogative
5. expressive/emotive
6. evocative
7. performative
8. recreational
9. metalinguistic
ⅲ. the defining features of language
1. arbitrariness
2. duality
3. creativity
4. displacement
5. cultural transmission
ⅳ. the origin of language
1. the bow-wow theory
2. the pooh-pooh theory
3. the ding-dong theory
4. the yo-he-ho theory
5. the ta-ta theory
6. the ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay theory
ⅴ. the acquisition of language
1. features of language acquisition
2. stages of language acquisition
ⅵ. linguistics: the science of language
1. definition
2. branch
3. character
ⅰ. the languages of the world（世界上的言语）
there are some 6, 800 known languages spoken in 200 countries of the world.
世界上共有6800多种言语，被200多个国家的我们所运用。
there are over 100 language families in the world.
世界上共有一百多个语系。
ⅱ. the functions of language（言语的功用）
1. phatic: hello.
问长问短功用。例：你好。
2. directive: get out of my way.
指令功用。例：滚开！
3. informative: the earth revolves around the sun.
信息功用。例：地球围着太阳转。
4. interrogative: do you know his hobby?
问询功用。例：你晓得他的喜爱吗？
5. expressive/emotive: i hate her.
表达功用。例：我厌烦她。
6. evocative: how do you like jack?
豪情功用。例：你觉得杰克怎么样？
7. performative: i hereby declare the meeting open.
施为功用。例：我特此宣告会议初步。
8. recreational: funny jokes make people laugh.
文娱功用。例：风趣的笑话使人发笑。
9. metalinguistic：use language to explain language itself.
元言语功用。例：用言语谈论言语本身。

ⅲ. the defining features of language（言语的差异性特征）
1. arbitrariness（任意性）
as a symbolic unit, a word has both form and meaning. as a rule, the relation between the form and the meaning, however, is arbitrary. in other words, there is no inherent connection between the form and the meaning.
作为标志性符号，单词具有方法和意义。可是，一般方法和意义之间的联络是任意的，换言之，二者之间没有内在联络。
2. duality（二重性）
language operates at two levels: at the lower level, language consists of a bunch of meaningless elements; at the higher level, the meaningless elements combine to form meaningful units like words.
杰弗里·乔叟
1.1 温习笔记
geoffrey chaucer (杰弗里·乔叟)(1343-1400)
1. life (生平)
geoffrey chaucer, born in 1343 in london, is the founder of english poetry. he was the son of a wine merchant who had connections with the court. he later became a courtier and comptroller.
chaucer’s learning was wide in scope. he obtained a good knowledge of latin, french and italian. he had broad and intimate acquaintance with persons high and low in all walks of life, and knew well the whole life of his time, which left great impressions upon his works and particularly upon his variegated depiction of the english society of his time.
he died in 1400 and was buried in westminster abbey, thus founding the poets’ corner.
杰弗里·乔叟于1343年出世于伦敦，他是英语诗歌之父。他是一个与宫廷有联络的酒商的儿子。他后来担任过侍臣和审计官。
乔叟常识广博。他通晓拉丁语、法语和意大利语。他结交广泛且易与人深交，不管是贵族仍是穷户，因而他深谙地址世事。这特别有利于他在作品中对英国社会的描写。
他逝于1400年，被葬在威斯敏斯特教堂，由此“诗人角”初步呈现。
2. major works (首要作品)
the book of the duchess (1368) 《公爵夫人之书》
the parliament of fowls (1380) 《百鸟大会》
the house of fame (1374-1384) 《名誉之堂》
troilus and criseyde (1380-1385) 《特罗勒斯与克丽西德》
the canterbury tales (1386-1400) 《坎特伯雷故事集》
3. chaucer’s literary career (文学生平)
chaucer’s literary career can be divided

into three periods, which is closely related to his life experiences. the first period consists of works translated from french literature; the second consists of works adapted from italian literature, especially influenced by dante, petrarch and boccaccio, such as troilus and criseyde. the third period includes the canterbury tales, which is purely english.
乔叟的文学生平可区别为三个期间，均与其自个日子阅历有关。第一期间乔叟的作品首要是翻译法国文学，第二期间则改编于意大利文学，深受但丁、彼特拉克和薄伽丘的影响，如《特罗勒斯与克丽西德》。第三期间包括《坎特伯雷故事集》，这是纯英语创造期间。
4. selected work (作品选读)
the canterbury tales 《坎特伯雷故事集》
(1) plot (情节)
the canterbury tales is a collection of stories written in middle english. the tales (mostly in verse) are told as part of a story-telling contest by twenty-nine pilgrims, together with the narrator, who travel together on a journey from southwark to the shrine of saint thomas becket at canterbury cathedral. when they met at the tabard inn, they agreed that each tell two tales on the way to canterbury and two more on the way back. the best storyteller will get a meal at the inn when they return, courtesy of the other pilgrims. but instead of 120 tales, the text ends after 24 tales, covering all the major types of medieval literature. the stories are well suited to their different characters, ranging from the knight, the monk and the pardoner etc.
《坎特伯雷故事集》是一部用中古英语写成的诗体短篇小说集。29名朝圣者和叙说者前往坎特伯雷去朝托付马斯·贝克特朝圣。当他们在旅馆相遇，抉择途中进行讲故事竞赛，每自个去时和回来时各讲两个，讲得最佳的人，回到旅馆后其他朝圣者请他吃饭。究竟共有24个故事被写进故事集，故事包括了中世纪文学的各个方面。每个故事都与叙说者的身份相符，叙说者包括各种阶层的人，有骑士、僧侣、赦罪僧等。
(2) theme (主题)
it shows a true-to-life picture of chaucer’s time. his tales expose and satirize the evils of his time, attack the degeneration of the noble and the corruption of the church. standing for the rising bourgeoisie, chaucer opposes the dogma of asceticism preached by the church, and believes man’s right to earthly happiness. he praises man’s energy, intellect, quick wit and love of life.
故事集展示了乔叟年代的真实日子画面。戳穿并批判了他地址年代的罪恶，批判了贵族的蜕化和教会的糜烂。乔叟站在新式小资产阶层的情绪，对立教会宣传的禁欲主义，而且信赖我们寻求世俗夸姣的权力。他赞扬了人的力气、才智和对日子的酷爱。
(3) language (言语)
chaucer is the first poet to write in english vernacular, now called middle english, which bear a close visual resemblance to the english written and spoken today. his language is vivid, exact and fluent. he introduced from france and italy the rhymed stanza of various types, especially the heroic couplet to english poetry.
乔叟是第一位用中古英语写作的诗人，其看起来和今日运用的英语很类似。他的言语生动、精确、流通。他选用了法国和意大利的诗歌方法，特别是“英豪双韵体”的运用。

1.2 课后习题详解
1. how is the setting of the tales described? with such a setting, could you predict the general tone of the tales that are to follow?
key: (1) chaucer sets the tales in the spring, describing both the natural world and people—the natural world shows a kind of renewal and rebirth, and people begin to stir after the long sleep of winter. chaucer’s description of the landscape is lively (愉快的)and fresh(新鲜的), since he speaks of budding flowers, growing crops and singing birds.
(2) according to such a setting, we can predict that the general tone of the tales will be light, sprightly(生动、开心的)and humorous.
2. in your own words, summarize the character of the knight from the brief introduction in this excerpt.
key: according to the excerpt, we can see that the knight has followed chivalry—truth, honor, freedom and courtesy. he had fought many battles for the faith of people. he is a brave, wise, modest and “truly perfect gentle knight”.
3. without comparison with the translated version, are there words still recognizable to you in the original middle english version?
key: yes, there are many words that can be recognized. because many words only contain few different letters compared with the modern words. what’s more, sometimes, we can recognize the words by guessing or by the sense-group.
来历：弘博学习网